The structure of early numeracy: evidence from multi-factorial models

Background: Despite the relevance of basic numerical skills to later mathematical outcomes, there remains little consensus on which skills comprise the construct of early numeracy.
Procedure: Here, we evaluate recent studies that investigated this construct using various approaches.
Main findings: Findings from these studies indicated broad consensus in considering skills such as counting, number relations, and basic arithmetic, as central aspects of early numeracy. However, both the number and contents of identified factors varied considerably across studies.
Conclusions: Although this review substantiated the critical relevance of certain basic numerical skills, it also highlights a need for future research to evaluate the structure of early numeracy in a more systematic and coordinated way to increase comparability and coherence across studies.